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Browse all 535 reasoning aspects across 6 dimensions.
This formal fallacy draws an affirmative (positive) conclusion from syllogistic premises where at least one is negati…
Affirming a disjunct is a formal fallacy that occurs with inclusive disjunctions (OR statements). Given 'A or B' and …
Affirming the consequent is a formal logical error where one assumes that because a conditional statement is true and…
The ambiguous middle term fallacy occurs in syllogistic reasoning when the middle term — the term that connects the t…
Denying a conjunct is a formal fallacy that occurs when, from the premise that a conjunction is false (not both A and…
Denying the antecedent occurs when someone reasons that because the 'if' clause of a conditional is false, the 'then'…
The existential fallacy occurs when a categorical syllogism draws a particular conclusion ('some X are Y') from two u…
The fallacy fallacy (also known as the argument from fallacy) occurs when someone concludes that a claim is false mer…
The fallacy of exclusive premises occurs in a categorical syllogism when both premises are negative. From two negativ…
The fallacy of four terms occurs in a syllogism when an ambiguous middle term is used with two different meanings, ef…
A broad category of formal fallacies involving incorrect reasoning about the consequent of a conditional statement. I…
Illicit conversion is a formal fallacy that involves invalidly converting a categorical statement by switching its su…
The illicit major is a formal fallacy in categorical syllogisms where the major term (the predicate of the conclusion…
The illicit minor is a formal fallacy in categorical syllogisms where the minor term (the subject of the conclusion) …
A formal fallacy that confuses a conditional with its converse. The valid contrapositive of 'if A then B' is 'if not …
The intensional fallacy occurs when co-referential terms (terms that refer to the same entity) are substituted within…
A formal fallacy where the type of disjunction (inclusive vs. exclusive 'or') is misidentified, leading to incorrect …
The masked man fallacy occurs when Leibniz's law of identity substitution is incorrectly applied in intensional (beli…
The mereological fallacy involves a confusion between the properties of parts and the properties of wholes, but diffe…
The modal fallacy confuses different types of possibility and necessity. It typically involves conflating logical nec…
This formal fallacy occurs in categorical syllogisms when a negative conclusion is drawn from two affirmative premise…
Non sequitur (Latin: 'it does not follow') is the broad formal fallacy in which the conclusion does not logically fol…
The ontological fallacy occurs when a model, map, theory, or abstraction is confused with the reality it represents. …
The logical form of the conjunction fallacy: concluding that a conjunction of events is more probable than one of its…
The quantifier shift fallacy occurs when the order of quantifiers is illegitimately switched, changing the meaning of…
A formal fallacy where the quantifier in a proposition is suppressed or left ambiguous, allowing the arguer to shift …
A formal syllogistic fallacy where the middle term connecting two premises is never distributed (never refers to all …
The accident fallacy (a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid) occurs when a general rule is applied to a specifi…
Ad hominem attacks the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. It comes in several varieties: abus…
Amphiboly is a fallacy arising from ambiguous grammatical structure rather than ambiguous individual words. The sente…
The anecdotal argument fallacy occurs when personal experiences, individual stories, or isolated examples are present…
Anthropomorphisation as a fallacy occurs when human characteristics such as desires, intentions, beliefs, or emotions…
The appeal to consequences argues that a belief must be true (or false) because accepting it would lead to desirable …
The appeal to fear uses threats, fear-mongering, or alarming scenarios to persuade, rather than presenting evidence o…
The appeal to flattery uses compliments, ego-stroking, or false praise to make someone more receptive to an argument …
Appeal to ignorance is closely related to the argument from ignorance but emphasizes the rhetorical exploitation of w…
The appeal to novelty assumes that something is better, more correct, or more desirable simply because it is new or m…
The appeal to pity substitutes sympathy and compassion for logical reasoning, arguing that a claim should be accepted…
The appeal to spite encourages someone to accept or reject a position based on feelings of bitterness, resentment, or…
The appeal to tradition argues that something is correct, good, or beneficial because it has been done that way for a…
The argument from ignorance asserts that a proposition is true because it has not been proven false, or false because…
The argument from personal incredulity treats one's own inability to understand or imagine something as evidence that…
The argument from silence draws a conclusion based on the absence of statements, evidence, or documentation. It reaso…
The Armchair Fallacy is a form of ad hominem that dismisses a person's criticism, analysis, or opinion on the grounds…
Bad-faith interpretation is the deliberate choice to read a statement in its most negative, damaging, or ridiculous p…
The bandwagon fallacy argues that something is true, good, or desirable simply because many people believe it or do i…
Begging the question occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, making the argument circu…
Bulverism, coined by C.S. Lewis, occurs when someone assumes an opponent's argument is wrong and then explains why th…
The burden of proof fallacy occurs when someone shifts the responsibility of proving a claim onto the person who ques…
The cause-effect swap occurs when the causal direction between two correlated phenomena is reversed. While both event…
Cherry picking selectively presents only the evidence that supports a predetermined conclusion while ignoring or supp…
Circular reasoning occurs when the conclusion of an argument is assumed, explicitly or implicitly, in one of its prem…
The complex question fallacy (plurium interrogationum) bundles two or more questions into one, with an embedded presu…
The fallacy of arguing that because there is no sharp boundary between two categories on a spectrum, the distinction …
Equivocation exploits the multiple meanings of a word or phrase by shifting its sense between premises and conclusion…
The etymological fallacy occurs when someone argues that the 'true' or 'correct' meaning of a word is its original or…
The fallacy of accent occurs when the meaning of a statement is altered by shifting emphasis, stress, or context, wit…
The fallacy of ambiguity is the broader category encompassing arguments that exploit unclear or multiple meanings of …
The fallacy of composition assumes that what is true of the parts must be true of the whole. It erroneously transfers…
The fallacy of division is the reverse of composition: it assumes that what is true of the whole must be true of each…
The fallacy of relative privation dismisses a problem by pointing to a worse problem elsewhere, arguing that concern …
The fallacy of the single cause assumes that a complex outcome has only one cause when it is actually the result of m…
A false analogy draws a comparison between two things that share some superficial similarities but differ in ways tha…
The false cause fallacy occurs when a causal relationship is asserted between two events without sufficient evidence,…
The false dilemma fallacy forces a choice between two options as if they are the only possibilities, when in reality …
Generic generalisation occurs when a generic statement — one that captures a typical or characteristic property of a …
The genetic fallacy judges the truth or value of a claim based on its origin rather than its current merit or evidenc…
Guilt by association discredits a person or idea by linking it to something or someone already viewed negatively, wit…
Hasty generalization is the act of drawing a broad conclusion from insufficient, biased, or unrepresentative evidence…
The fallacy of assuming that historical decision-makers had access to the same information available to those analyzi…
Kettle logic presents multiple inconsistent or contradictory arguments in defense of the same position, without ackno…
A loaded question embeds a presupposition or assumption that has not been established, forcing the respondent to impl…
The middle ground fallacy assumes that the truth must lie between two extreme positions, or that a compromise is alwa…
The naturalistic fallacy conflates what is natural with what is good, right, or desirable. It derives normative ('oug…
The nirvana fallacy rejects a practical solution because it is not perfect, comparing it against an unrealistic ideal…
No True Scotsman is an ad hoc rescue of a universal claim by redefining the group in question to exclude counterexamp…
Objectification as an argumentative fallacy occurs when human beings are reduced to objects, resources, statistics, o…
The overwhelming exception fallacy occurs when a generalisation is presented as meaningful or informative despite hav…
A fallacy that bundles together distinct propositions and treats them as a single package that must be accepted or re…
The panacea fallacy occurs when a single, simple solution is proposed as the complete answer to a complex, multi-dime…
The pathetic fallacy, a term coined by John Ruskin, occurs when human emotions are projected onto nature, weather, or…
Post hoc ergo propter hoc ('after this, therefore because of this') is the specific fallacy of concluding that becaus…
A fallacy where an argument's reasoning, if applied consistently, proves far more than intended, including absurd or …
The regression fallacy attributes a natural statistical regression to the mean to a specific cause. After an extreme …
The fallacy of treating an abstract concept, model, or statistical construct as if it were a concrete thing with caus…
The semiotic fallacy occurs when the sign (word, symbol, label, metric) is confused with its referent — the actual th…
The slippery slope fallacy claims that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related event…
Special pleading occurs when someone applies a rule, principle, or standard to others but exempts themselves or their…
The straw man fallacy involves misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Instead of engaging wi…
Syntactic ambiguity occurs when the grammatical structure of a sentence — rather than the meaning of individual words…
The teleological fallacy occurs when purpose, design, or intentionality is attributed to a process, system, or entity…
The Texas sharpshooter fallacy occurs when someone cherry-picks data clusters from a random set and then assigns sign…
Tu quoque ('you too') deflects criticism by pointing out that the accuser is guilty of the same or similar behavior. …
An informal fallacy where an argument relies on an analogy between two cases that are not sufficiently similar in the…
Projection occurs when a speaker attributes their own motives, faults, or behaviors to others. Instead of acknowledgi…
Speculation as Fact occurs when unverified assumptions, guesses, or theories are presented as though they are establi…
Strategic Vagueness employs deliberately imprecise language, undefined terms, or ambiguous phrasing to avoid commitme…
Suggestive Questioning uses questions that embed assumptions or imply their own answers, guiding the audience toward …
Unsubstantiated Claims are assertions presented without supporting evidence, data, or credible sources. The speaker e…
Anecdotal Evidence uses individual stories, personal experiences, or isolated cases as proof for general claims. Whil…
Social Compliance occurs when statements, opinions, or reporting are shaped by social pressure rather than factual ev…
Source Selection Bias occurs when a speaker or media outlet systematically chooses sources that confirm a predetermin…
Blame Deflection occurs when a speaker, instead of addressing criticism or a problem directly, responds by assigning …
Red Herring Distraction involves introducing irrelevant or tangentially related topics into a discussion to divert at…
Refusing Engagement is the deliberate avoidance of substantive critique. Rather than addressing questions, evidence, …
Moving the Goalposts involves changing or adding criteria for success or validity after an argument or evidence has m…
Discourse Gatekeeping involves challenging who is permitted to speak legitimately on a topic — often based on identit…
Discriminatory Framing uses language that demeans, excludes, or marks groups as inferior based on identity attributes…
Us vs. Them Framing presents complex political, social, or cultural situations as binary conflicts between an ingroup…
Emotional sensationalism is the deliberate use of amplified emotional content — overwrought language, extreme imagery…
Empty symbolism occurs when media coverage deploys emotionally resonant symbols — images, flags, anthems, cultural to…
False dichotomy in media framing occurs when complex issues with multiple legitimate positions are structured as bina…
Flawed comparison occurs when media coverage juxtaposes two entities, events, statistics, or claims in a way that imp…
Magnitude distortion is the systematic misrepresentation of the size, severity, or importance of events or trends — e…
Normalwashing is the media practice of making extreme, fringe, or previously taboo positions appear mainstream, reaso…
Rhetorical substitution occurs when persuasive stylistic devices — rhetorical questions that imply answers, irony tha…
Word choice bias occurs when journalists or editors select terminology that encodes political, moral, or evaluative j…
Ageism manifests as discriminatory language or attitudes directed at people based on their age. It operates in both d…
Brigading is coordinated off-platform organization to manipulate on-platform outcomes — flooding ratings, polls, revi…
Classism encompasses language patterns that demean, stereotype, or marginalize people based on their socioeconomic st…
Concern hijacking involves co-opting another person's or group's legitimate grievance, suffering, or cause for one's …
Dehumanizing language strips targeted individuals or groups of their humanity by comparing them to animals, insects, …
Deliberate hyperbole is the strategic use of extreme exaggeration to produce emotional impact and advance a rhetorica…
Dog whistles are coded expressions that appear neutral to the general public but convey a specific, often discriminat…
Dogpiling is a form of coordinated or spontaneous mass-attack where a large number of people simultaneously direct cr…
Gender stereotypes assign fixed traits, roles, or expectations to people based on their gender. They operate on a spe…
A manipulative rhetorical tactic where a speaker claims to voice the will, feelings, or opinions of 'the people', 'or…
Racial stereotyping assigns fixed traits, abilities, or behaviors to all members of a racial or ethnic group. It oper…
A manipulative rhetorical pattern where a speaker invokes abstract values — 'our values', 'Western values', 'democrat…
Association bias occurs when media reporting evaluates people, ideas, or policies by linking them to other entities —…
Horse race journalism is the media practice of covering politics, elections, and public debates as competitive sporti…
Mud & Honey (also called attack-praise manipulation) is the simultaneous use of targeted personal attacks on one indi…
Commercial bias occurs when the economic interests of advertisers, sponsors, or media owners shape editorial decision…
Ideological bias is the systematic preference for one political or cultural worldview in editorial selection, framing…
Opinionated reporting occurs when editorial judgments, political interpretations, or value-laden conclusions are embe…
Agenda setting is the power to determine which topics the public thinks about, even without telling them what to thin…
Anchoring bias exploitation is a manipulation technique that deliberately introduces an initial reference point (the …
Appeal to (false) authority occurs when someone cites an authority figure to support a claim, but the authority eithe…
Appeal to emotion is a manipulation technique where an argument bypasses rational analysis by targeting the audience'…
Appeal to purity (No True Scotsman) is a technique that dismisses counterexamples to a claim by retroactively redefin…
Argumentum ad baculum (appeal to the stick/force) occurs when threats of force, punishment, or other negative consequ…
Astroturfing is the practice of creating the appearance of grassroots public support for a cause, policy, or product …
Card stacking involves selectively presenting only evidence that supports one side of an argument while deliberately …
Consensus cracking is a coordinated effort to undermine established scientific or expert consensus by creating the ap…
A manipulation technique that exploits the flattening of context when content moves between different audiences or pl…
A manipulation strategy where a powerful entity creates or co-opts its own opposition to control the narrative and ch…
Coordinated inauthentic behavior (CIB) refers to organized campaigns where networks of accounts or entities work toge…
A deliberate diversion tactic where someone introduces a shocking or outrageous topic to dominate the conversation an…
Deceptive framing involves presenting information in a way that emphasizes certain aspects while deliberately obscuri…
Deepfake manipulation involves using AI-generated or AI-altered audio, video, or images to fabricate realistic but fa…
Doppelganger impersonation involves creating fake websites, social media accounts, or media outlets that closely mimi…
Emotional flooding is a manipulation technique where content is deliberately saturated with emotionally intense mater…
Fearmongering is the deliberate use of fear to influence an audience's beliefs or actions, typically by exaggerating …
Flag-waving is a propaganda technique that appeals to patriotism, national identity, or group loyalty to justify a po…
FUD (Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt) is a strategy of spreading vague, unsubstantiated negative information to undermin…
Gaslighting is a manipulation technique where the perpetrator systematically denies, contradicts, or distorts documen…
The Gish Gallop is a rhetorical technique where a speaker overwhelms their opponent with a rapid-fire barrage of many…
Glittering generalities involve the use of vague, emotionally appealing words and phrases that sound positive and vir…
The process of passing information through a chain of intermediaries to obscure its original source and give it the c…
Just Asking Questions (JAQing off) is a rhetorical technique where someone uses questions to imply claims or spread d…
A propaganda technique where a party under pressure strategically reveals some true but relatively minor damaging inf…
Loaded language involves choosing words or phrases that carry strong emotional connotations — positive or negative — …
A propaganda technique that creates the false appearance of widespread agreement by coordinating messaging, suppressi…
Manufactured outrage involves deliberately provoking, amplifying, or fabricating public anger about an issue to serve…
Manufacturing consent, a concept developed by Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman, describes how media and institutional s…
Moving the goalposts is a technique where someone continually changes the criteria for proof or success after the ori…
Name-calling is one of the most basic propaganda techniques, involving the use of derogatory or emotionally charged l…
Narrative laundering is the process of passing a dubious claim through progressively more credible-seeming intermedia…
Normalization is the gradual process by which extreme, shocking, or previously unacceptable ideas, behaviors, or poli…
Othering is the process of defining an in-group by contrasting it with an out-group that is portrayed as fundamentall…
Overton Window manipulation is the strategic introduction of extreme positions into public discourse to shift the ran…
Paltering is the art of misleading through technically true statements. Unlike lying (asserting falsehoods) or omissi…
The plain folks appeal is a technique where a speaker — typically someone in a position of power, wealth, or privileg…
Reductio ad Hitlerum, a term coined by philosopher Leo Strauss, is a form of guilt by association in which a position…
Repetition (ad nauseam) is the technique of repeating a message, slogan, or claim so frequently that it becomes famil…
A propaganda strategy where a party admits its own falsehoods but claims the other side is equally dishonest, creatin…
A manipulation strategy of achieving a large, potentially unacceptable goal through a series of small, individually i…
Sealioning is a form of trolling disguised as civil discourse, where the sealioner repeatedly and persistently demand…
Smears and name-calling involve attaching negative labels or derogatory terms to a person, group, or idea to discredi…
Social conformity (bandwagon) is a propaganda technique that argues something is true, good, or necessary because man…
Sockpuppeting is the use of fake identities — multiple accounts controlled by a single person or organization — to cr…
A manipulation technique where statements are deliberately crafted to be ambiguous, allowing the speaker to mean diff…
The Big Lie is a propaganda technique where a falsehood so enormous and audacious is asserted that people struggle to…
A systematic manipulation technique that reshapes language to control thought. By introducing a closed vocabulary sys…
A thought-terminating cliche is a commonly used phrase that is invoked to end debate or shut down critical thinking. …
Triangulation is a manipulation technique where a third party is introduced into a two-party dynamic to exert indirec…
A propaganda strategy that identifies and exploits internal disagreements within a coalition or group to fragment it.…
Whataboutism is a diversionary tactic where someone responds to an accusation or criticism by pointing to a different…
Anchoring bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the 'anchor') when …
Attentional bias is the tendency to pay disproportionate attention to certain types of stimuli while ignoring others,…
The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut where people estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily ex…
The failure to notice significant changes in a visual scene when the change coincides with a visual disruption such a…
Choice overload, also known as the paradox of choice, occurs when an excessive number of options leads to decision pa…
Choice-supportive bias is the tendency to retroactively ascribe positive attributes to an option one has selected and…
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one'…
The enhancement or diminishment of a perception, cognition, or experience when compared with a recently observed cont…
The tendency to view two options as more different when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them sepa…
The tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event or situation when making predictions or judgments…
The perception that something you have recently noticed or learned about suddenly appears everywhere, when in reality…
The tendency to offer greater help to a specific, identifiable individual than to a large, vaguely defined group with…
The illusory truth effect is the tendency to believe information is true after repeated exposure, regardless of its a…
The failure to perceive clearly visible objects or events when attention is engaged elsewhere. Unlike change blindnes…
The deliberate decision to avoid information that might be useful but is expected to be uncomfortable, threatening to…
A cognitive bias where a smaller or objectively inferior option is preferred over a larger or better option when eval…
The mere exposure effect is the psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for things simply because …
The tendency to think of money in nominal terms (face value) rather than real terms (purchasing power). This leads pe…
Negativity bias is the psychological tendency for negative events, emotions, and information to have a greater impact…
The primacy effect is the tendency for the first items in a sequence to have a disproportionate influence on judgment…
Recency bias is the tendency to place disproportionate importance on recent events or experiences when making judgmen…
The cognitive bias where rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful, accurate, or profound than equivalent non…
The tendency to focus on and give disproportionate weight to information that is emotionally striking, vivid, or perc…
The Semmelweis reflex is the automatic tendency to reject new evidence or knowledge because it contradicts establishe…
Survivorship bias is the logical error of concentrating on entities that passed through a selection process while ove…
The tendency to treat a single unit of something as the appropriate amount, regardless of the actual unit size. Peopl…
The principle that the perceived change in a stimulus is proportional to the initial stimulus, not to the absolute ch…
The actor-observer bias is the tendency to attribute one's own actions to external, situational factors while attribu…
Apophenia is the tendency to perceive meaningful connections, patterns, or causal relationships in random or unrelate…
The arrival fallacy, a term coined by positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar, is the cognitive bias of believing that r…
Authority bias is the tendency to attribute greater accuracy and weight to the opinion of an authority figure, regard…
The tendency to accept vague, general personality descriptions as uniquely applicable to oneself. People rate generic…
The tendency to ignore general prevalence information (base rates) when evaluating the probability of a specific even…
The tendency to maintain beliefs even after the evidence that originally supported them has been thoroughly discredit…
The tendency to recognize cognitive biases in others while failing to see them in oneself. Even when people are educa…
The tendency for people to appear more attractive when seen in a group than when viewed individually. The brain avera…
The tendency to see meaningful patterns in random data, particularly in small samples. People expect random sequences…
The difficulty of imagining what it is like to not know something once you already know it. Experts systematically ov…
Distinction bias is the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when…
The false consensus effect is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which one's own opinions, beliefs, preferenc…
The gambler's fallacy is the mistaken belief that if a particular event occurs more frequently than normal during a g…
The mistaken belief that if a random event has occurred more frequently than expected in the past, it is less likely …
The group attribution error involves two related mistakes: first, assuming that the characteristics of an individual …
The halo effect is a cognitive bias where a positive impression of a person, brand, or entity in one domain unconscio…
The belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in a…
The hot-cold empathy gap refers to the difficulty of predicting one's own behavior or preferences when in a different…
The IKEA effect is the tendency for people to place disproportionately high value on products or solutions they have …
The illusion of control is the tendency to believe one has more influence over outcomes than one actually does, parti…
The belief that one understands complex systems and mechanisms much better than one actually does. When asked to expl…
The tendency to overestimate the degree to which one's internal states (emotions, thoughts, intentions) are apparent …
The tendency to maintain confidence in predictions and judgments even when the evidence shows they are unreliable. Pe…
The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, or the overestimation of the…
The tendency to overestimate one's own qualities and abilities relative to others. Most people rate themselves as abo…
The tendency to underappreciate the role of sample size in the reliability of statistical results. People expect smal…
The just-world hypothesis is the cognitive bias that the world is fundamentally fair, meaning that people generally g…
The Law of Narrative Gravity describes the tendency for new information to be pulled toward and assimilated into domi…
The tendency to allow oneself morally questionable behavior after having done something virtuous, as if good deeds cr…
The tendency to expect others to be more selfishly motivated than they actually are. While naive realism assumes our …
The belief that we see the world objectively and without bias, and that people who disagree with us must be uninforme…
The tendency to disregard probability when making decisions under uncertainty, responding instead to the magnitude of…
The tendency to overestimate the probability of positive events and underestimate the probability of negative events …
The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome rather than by the quality of the reasoning process at the t…
The tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than members of one's own ingroup. Peop…
The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of negative events, particularly in contexts of depression, anxiety, or a…
Projection bias is the tendency to assume that one's current preferences, desires, and emotional states will remain s…
The tendency to assume that big events must have big causes. People find it psychologically unsatisfying when a major…
The failure to recognize that extreme observations tend to be followed by more moderate ones — a statistical phenomen…
The tendency to judge the probability of an event by how similar it is to a prototype or stereotype, rather than by a…
Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to one's own abilities and efforts (internal attribu…
The tendency to over-report socially desirable behaviors and under-report socially undesirable ones. This bias affect…
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others notice and evaluate our appearance, behavior, and mistakes. P…
The tendency for the sum of probability judgments of individual events to exceed the probability of the overall event…
The Swimmer's Body Illusion is the error of confusing selection factors with causal results. The observation that eli…
Wishful thinking is a cognitive bias in which the desirability of a belief influences the assessment of its truth. Pe…
The tendency to perceive situations as zero-sum (one party's gain is another's loss) even when they are not. People i…
Action bias is the tendency to favor action over inaction, even when there is no evidence that action will produce a …
Additive bias is the systematic tendency to solve problems by adding new elements, features, or rules rather than rem…
The affect heuristic is a mental shortcut in which people make judgments and decisions based on their current emotion…
The preference for known risks over unknown risks. People prefer options where the probability of outcomes is known (…
Automation bias is the tendency to favor suggestions from automated systems and to ignore or discount contradictory i…
The phenomenon where correcting a person's misconception can paradoxically strengthen their belief in that misconcept…
The bystander effect is the social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a vict…
The decoy effect occurs when the introduction of a third option (the decoy) changes the preference between two origin…
The default effect is the tendency to accept the pre-selected or default option when presented with a choice, even wh…
The denomination effect is the tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in smaller amounts (coins, small b…
The disposition effect is the tendency to sell assets that have increased in value (winners) too early while holding …
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with limited knowledge or competence in a domain si…
The tendency to assign greater value to things that required more effort to produce, regardless of the actual quality…
The tendency to underestimate the influence of visceral drives (hunger, pain, desire, emotion) on one's own preferenc…
The endowment effect is the tendency for people to value something they own more highly than something they do not, s…
The cognitive bias of seeing objects only in terms of their typical use, which prevents creative problem-solving. Onc…
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize personality-based or dispositional explanations fo…
Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon where the desire for conformity and harmony within a group overrides realist…
The HiPPO Effect (Highest Paid Person's Opinion) describes the tendency in group settings for the most senior or high…
Hyperbolic discounting is the tendency to prefer smaller, immediate rewards over larger, later rewards, with the pref…
Ingroup bias is the systematic tendency to favor members of one's own group over members of other groups in evaluatio…
Loss aversion is the psychological principle that losses loom larger than equivalent gains - typically about twice as…
The tendency for past moral or socially desirable behavior to license subsequent immoral or selfish behavior. Having …
The tendency to overestimate the likelihood that things will go wrong, based on the folk wisdom 'anything that can go…
Normalcy bias is the tendency to underestimate the possibility and impact of a disaster or disruptive event because i…
The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse than equally harmful inactions (omissions). People tend to feel more r…
The overconfidence effect is the tendency to be more confident in one's judgments, knowledge, and abilities than is w…
The planning fallacy is the systematic tendency to underestimate the time, costs, and risks of future actions while o…
The tendency to confidently evaluate the quality of something — a film, a meal, a piece of music, a software product,…
Reactance is a motivational state that arises when people perceive their freedom of choice is being threatened or eli…
Reactive devaluation is the tendency to devalue proposals, concessions, or ideas simply because they originate from a…
Restraint Bias is the tendency to overestimate one's ability to control impulsive behavior. People who believe they h…
The tendency to adjust behavior in response to perceived changes in risk, often increasing risk-taking when safety me…
Status quo bias is the preference for the current state of affairs, where any change from the baseline is perceived a…
The sunk cost fallacy is the tendency to continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or decision because…
The tendency to defend, bolster, and justify existing social, economic, and political arrangements, even when these s…
Zero-risk bias is the preference for completely eliminating a risk rather than reducing overall risk by a larger amou…
The bizarreness effect is the tendency for unusual, strange, or bizarre material to be better remembered than common,…
Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort experienced when simultaneously holding contradictory beliefs, v…
A memory bias in which a person mistakenly believes a thought or idea is their own original creation, when it was act…
The tendency for the emotional intensity of negative memories to fade faster than that of positive memories. Over tim…
The phenomenon that information is better remembered if it is actively generated by the learner rather than passively…
The tendency to forget information that is easily accessible through search engines or other external storage. When p…
Hindsight bias is the tendency to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were. After…
The misinformation effect occurs when a person's recall of an event is altered by exposure to misleading information …
The finding that memory performance differs depending on whether information is presented visually or auditorily. For…
The reduced ability to remember what the person immediately before you said when you are next in line to speak or per…
The counterintuitive finding that providing some items from a memorized list as cues actually impairs recall of the r…
The peak-end rule is a cognitive bias in which people judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its most …
The tendency to recall past events more positively than they were actually experienced at the time. People's memories…
Self-Consistency Bias is the tendency to perceive one's past attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors as more consistent wit…
The tendency to best remember the first items (primacy effect) and the last items (recency effect) in a series, while…
The failure to correctly attribute the origin of a memory to its actual source. People may confuse whether they exper…
The tendency to incorporate information from external sources into one's own memory or judgment, particularly when th…
The tendency to perceive recent events as more remote than they are (backward telescoping) and remote events as more …
The tendency to remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The human mind creates a kind o…
False Precision occurs when data is presented with more decimal places or significant figures than the underlying mea…
This confusion arises when people mix up percentage points (the arithmetic difference between two percentages) and pe…
Algorithmic bias is a technical statistical problem that arises when machine learning models encode and perpetuate hi…
The cobra effect describes situations where an attempt to solve a problem through incentivizing a measurable proxy no…
Proxy bias occurs when indirect measures are used in place of the true construct of interest, and the gap between the…
Pseudo-replication occurs when non-independent observations are treated as if they were statistically independent, ar…
The atomistic fallacy occurs when researchers analyze only individual-level data to explain phenomena that also have …
A 95% confidence interval is widely misinterpreted as meaning there is a 95% probability that the true parameter lies…
The correlation-causation fallacy is the error of inferring a causal relationship between two variables solely becaus…
Model selection bias occurs when the final statistical model is chosen after examining the data, optimistically biasi…
The p-value is the probability of observing data at least as extreme as the data obtained, given that the null hypoth…
A regression artifact occurs when individuals are selected for a study or intervention because of extreme scores on a…
Secular trend confounding occurs when long-term background trends in both the exposure and outcome variables create t…
Single study generalization is the error of treating one study's findings as definitive evidence, without requiring r…
A spurious correlation is a statistical association between two variables that has no direct causal connection, arisi…
A Type III error occurs when a researcher correctly rejects the null hypothesis but draws the wrong conclusion about …
Variance neglect is the tendency to focus on mean expected outcomes while ignoring variability, spread, and tail risk…
The winner's curse states that the first statistically significant finding of an effect almost certainly overestimate…
Demand characteristics bias occurs when participants detect cues about what the study hypothesis is and alter their r…
The Hawthorne effect refers to the tendency for individuals to modify their behavior when they know they are being ob…
Informative censoring is a violation of the standard survival analysis assumption that censoring is independent of th…
Questionnaire wording bias encompasses the systematic distortion of survey responses caused by how questions are phra…
Response shift bias occurs when a change in the internal reference standard, values, or definition of a construct cau…
The Allais paradox demonstrates that people systematically violate expected utility theory by switching preferences w…
The birthday problem demonstrates that people grossly underestimate coincidence probability because they think about …
The Ellsberg paradox reveals that people systematically prefer bets with known probabilities over bets with unknown p…
Freedman's paradox demonstrates that when many predictors are screened relative to observations, purely random variab…
A suppression effect occurs when including a third variable in a regression model increases the magnitude of an exist…
The two envelopes paradox presents a situation where switching envelopes always appears to yield higher expected valu…
The false positive paradox occurs when a highly accurate test applied to a rare condition produces more false positiv…
The Monty Hall error is the failure to correctly update conditional probabilities after structured information is rev…
The prosecutor's fallacy involves confusing the probability of the evidence given innocence — P(evidence | innocent) …
The St. Petersburg paradox describes a gamble with theoretically infinite expected value that virtually no rational p…
The Defense Attorney's Fallacy is the mirror image of the Prosecutor's Fallacy. It occurs when someone argues that be…
The Reference Class Problem occurs when assigning a probability to an individual case that belongs to multiple groups…
This error occurs when relative risk changes (percentages of percentages) are confused with or substituted for absolu…
The Garden of Forking Paths describes how researchers, even without malicious intent, make numerous small analytical …
The Streetlight Effect is the tendency to search for answers only where it is easiest to look, rather than where the …
Attrition bias occurs when participants drop out of a study in ways that are correlated with the treatment or outcome…
Convenience sampling bias arises when researchers sample whoever is most easily accessible rather than drawing a repr…
Incidence-prevalence bias (also called Neyman bias) occurs when studying existing cases of a disease gives a distorte…
Lead-time bias occurs when earlier detection of a disease through screening appears to extend survival time even when…
Length-time bias occurs when screening programs preferentially detect slow-growing, less aggressive disease variants …
Overdiagnosis occurs when screening or sensitive testing detects conditions that would never have caused symptoms or …
Undercoverage bias occurs when some members of the target population have zero or near-zero probability of being incl…
Volunteer bias occurs when participants who choose to participate in studies differ systematically from those who do …
3D chart distortion refers to the systematic visual misrepresentation introduced when two-dimensional data is rendere…
Area chart distortion occurs when charts encode values as two-dimensional areas, exploiting the non-linearity of huma…
Color scale manipulation uses non-linear color scales, strategic breakpoints, or misleading color ramps on maps and h…
Dual-axis manipulation uses two y-axes with deliberately chosen different scales to make visually unrelated or weakly…
The Abilene Paradox describes a situation where a group collectively agrees to a course of action that none of its me…
The Accuracy Paradox occurs when a predictive model with higher overall accuracy performs worse at the task it was de…
Acquiescence bias is the tendency for survey respondents to agree with statements regardless of their actual content.…
Ascertainment bias occurs when the method of identifying study participants systematically distorts the sample compos…
Attenuation bias occurs when random measurement error in one or more variables systematically biases estimated relati…
The base rate fallacy occurs when people ignore or underweight the prior probability (base rate) of an event when eva…
Berkson's Paradox occurs when conditioning on a shared consequence (a collider variable) of two independent causes cr…
A ceiling effect occurs when a measurement instrument or scale has an upper limit that prevents it from distinguishin…
Central tendency bias occurs when observers or respondents avoid the extreme ends of a rating scale, clustering their…
Chronological bias occurs when changes over time — in technology, diagnostic standards, treatment protocols, or socia…
Citation bias occurs when studies with statistically significant or positive results are cited more frequently than s…
A statistical error that occurs when conditioning on a variable that is causally affected by two other variables crea…
Confounding variable neglect occurs when a study fails to account for a variable that is associated with both the tre…
The conjunction fallacy occurs when people judge the probability of two events occurring together (a conjunction) as …
Data dredging is the practice of exhaustively searching through data for any statistically significant patterns witho…
Detection bias occurs when the process of identifying or measuring outcomes differs systematically between comparison…
Differential misclassification occurs when the accuracy of measuring exposure or outcome status differs between compa…
Digit preference bias occurs when observers systematically round measurements to preferred numbers, typically those e…
Dissemination bias is the umbrella term for all processes by which research findings are selectively made available b…
Double-dipping (circular analysis) occurs when the same data is used both to generate a hypothesis and to test it, in…
The error of drawing conclusions about individuals from aggregate (group-level) data. Correlations observed at the gr…
Endogeneity bias arises when an independent variable in a regression model is correlated with the error term, violati…
Exclusion bias arises when the criteria used to select or filter study participants systematically remove individuals…
Extrapolation error occurs when a model or trend observed within a specific data range is extended beyond that range …
A floor effect occurs when a measurement instrument has a lower bound that prevents it from distinguishing among indi…
The Friendship Paradox states that, on average, your friends have more friends than you do. This occurs because peopl…
Ghost variables are unmeasured or unacknowledged variables that influence both the independent and dependent variable…
Goodhart's Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure. Once people know they are…
HARKing is the practice of presenting a hypothesis that was developed or refined after examining the data as though i…
The healthy worker effect is a form of selection bias where occupational cohorts appear healthier than the general po…
A bias in observational studies where a period of follow-up during which the outcome cannot occur (because the exposu…
Information bias is a systematic error arising from how data is obtained, recorded, or classified in a study. Unlike …
The Inspection Paradox occurs when observing a process at a random moment makes you more likely to land in a longer i…
Instrument bias occurs when the measurement tool itself introduces systematic error into the data. This can result fr…
Interpolation error occurs when values between observed data points are estimated by assuming a particular functional…
Interviewer bias occurs when the person conducting interviews systematically influences responses through their quest…
The law of small numbers is the erroneous belief that small samples should be representative of the population from w…
Lindley's Paradox occurs when frequentist and Bayesian statistical methods produce contradictory conclusions from the…
Location bias occurs when the journal or venue in which a study is published depends on the direction or significance…
Look-ahead bias occurs when an analysis incorporates information that would not have been available at the time being…
A statistical paradox where two legitimate analytical methods applied to the same data yield opposite conclusions. Ty…
The McNamara Fallacy occurs when decision-making relies exclusively on quantitative metrics while ignoring qualitativ…
Misleading aggregation occurs when data is combined or averaged in ways that obscure important patterns, subgroup dif…
Misleading pie and donut charts exploit the difficulty humans have in accurately comparing angles and areas. Pie char…
The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem occurs when statistical results change depending on how geographic areas are define…
Multicollinearity occurs when two or more independent variables in a regression model are highly correlated, making i…
The statistical error of performing many tests without adjusting for the increased probability of false positives. Wi…
Neyman bias occurs in cross-sectional or prevalence studies when cases that are fatal, short-lived, or lead to rapid …
Non-differential misclassification occurs when the measurement error for exposure or outcome is equal across all comp…
Non-response bias occurs when individuals who do not participate in a survey or study differ systematically from thos…
Observer bias occurs when a researcher's knowledge, expectations, or beliefs systematically influence how they collec…
Omitted variable bias occurs when a statistical model leaves out a relevant variable that is correlated with both the…
Overfitting occurs when a statistical model or analysis captures noise and random fluctuations in the training data r…
P-hacking occurs when researchers repeatedly analyze data using different methods, variable selections, or subgroup d…
Parrondo's Paradox demonstrates that two individually losing strategies can be combined to produce a winning outcome.…
Performance bias occurs when the groups in a study receive systematically different treatment, care, or attention bey…
Publication bias is the systematic tendency for journals and researchers to preferentially publish studies with posit…
Range restriction occurs when the variability in one or more variables is artificially reduced, typically through sam…
Ratio bias (denominator neglect) is the tendency to focus on absolute numbers rather than proportions or rates when e…
Recall bias occurs when participants in a study remember or report past exposures, behaviors, or events inaccurately,…
Errors arising from improper application of regression discontinuity designs, including incorrect functional form ass…
The regression to the mean fallacy occurs when people interpret a natural statistical phenomenon as a causal effect. …
Reverse causality occurs when the presumed direction of a causal relationship is backwards — the variable treated as …
Salami slicing is the practice of dividing the results of a single study into multiple publications, each presenting …
Scale manipulation involves using uneven intervals, non-linear scales, dual axes, or inconsistent unit sizes to disto…
Self-selection bias occurs when individuals choose whether to participate in a study, program, or treatment, and this…
Sieve bias occurs when data passes through multiple filtering or selection steps, each of which may introduce its own…
Simpson's Paradox occurs when a trend that appears in several different groups of data reverses or disappears when th…
Spatial autocorrelation occurs when the values of a variable at nearby locations are more similar (positive autocorre…
Spectrum bias occurs when the accuracy of a diagnostic test is evaluated using a patient population that does not ref…
Sponsorship bias refers to the systematic tendency for industry-funded research to produce results favorable to the s…
The counterintuitive statistical result that when estimating three or more parameters simultaneously, the individual …
The statistical error of drawing conclusions from a dataset that has been filtered by a survival or success criterion…
Susceptibility bias occurs when the groups being compared in a study have different baseline risks for the outcome of…
Time-lag bias occurs when the speed of publication depends on the nature of the results, with studies showing signifi…
Truncated axis manipulation involves starting a graph's y-axis at a value other than zero (or using a non-linear scal…
A Type 1 error (false positive) occurs when a statistical test rejects a true null hypothesis, concluding that an eff…
A Type 2 error (false negative) occurs when a statistical test fails to reject a false null hypothesis, missing a rea…
An underpowered study has too few participants or observations to reliably detect an effect of the expected size. Sta…
A statistical artifact where the average of every group improves when members are reclassified from one group to anot…
The argument from alternatives evaluates a proposed course of action by comparing it to other available options. It c…
A fundamental argumentation scheme that transfers a conclusion from a known case to an unknown case based on relevant…
The argument from cause to effect reasons that because a particular cause is present (or will be introduced), a speci…
An argumentation scheme that attributes properties to an individual based on its membership in a category. The scheme…
The argument from commitment holds a person to their previously stated positions, promises, or principles. If someone…
The argument from composition or division reasons about the relationship between parts and wholes. In the composition…
An argumentation scheme that evaluates a claim, policy, or action based on its consequences. In its legitimate form (…
The argument from correlation to cause reasons that because two phenomena are correlated (they vary together), one mu…
The argument from definition asserts that something must have certain properties because of how the relevant term is …
The argument from example uses one or more specific instances to support a general claim or to argue that what happen…
The argument from expert opinion appeals to the testimony or judgment of a recognized authority in a relevant field t…
The argument from fear appeal urges a course of action by vividly depicting the terrible consequences of not acting. …
Ableist language uses disability-related terms as metaphors for negative qualities, thereby reinforcing the idea that…
A rhetorical pattern that combines urgency ('We must act NOW!') with vagueness about what that action should be. The …
A rhetorical pattern where a speaker meticulously acknowledges all perspectives on an issue — 'on the one hand... on …
A defensive rhetorical maneuver where a speaker responds to criticism or calls for action by declaring the issue 'ver…
A rhetorical pattern where a speaker demands action, change, or consequences without specifying what exactly should b…
A rhetorical pattern where speakers make grand promises about outcomes that will only materialize — or be measurable …
A rhetorical pattern where leaders or organizations claim to be 'on a good path', 'making progress', or 'heading in t…
A recurring rhetorical ritual where, after a disaster or atrocity, public figures solemnly declare 'never again' or '…
A rhetorical pattern where responsibility is distributed across an entire group — 'we all must do our part', 'society…
A ubiquitous rhetorical formula where a person or organization responds to criticism or scandal by declaring they 'ta…
A ritualized expression of empathy — 'our thoughts and prayers are with the victims' — that has become the standard r…
Tokenism is the practice of making a perfunctory or symbolic effort to include members of underrepresented groups, pr…
A rhetorical device where vague references to 'experts', 'scientists', 'analysts', or 'people who know' are used to l…
A rhetorical pattern where the claim of ongoing work — 'we're working on it', 'we're in the process of', 'we're looki…
Filibustering in discourse refers to deliberately dominating a conversation through extreme verbosity, tangential ela…
Flaming is the practice of posting hostile, insulting, or deliberately offensive messages in online communication, ty…
Gunnysacking is the practice of storing up grievances over time and then dumping them all at once during a conflict, …
Trolling is the deliberate act of making provocative, inflammatory, or off-topic statements with the intent to cause …
Ad feminam is a gendered form of the ad hominem fallacy in which an argument is dismissed, devalued, or not taken ser…
Ad virum is the complement of ad feminam: an argument is dismissed, devalued, or treated as inherently suspect becaus…
The appeal to nature argues that something is good, right, healthy, or desirable because it is 'natural,' or that som…
The argument from incredulity asserts that something must be false (or true) based on the speaker's personal inabilit…
Burden of proof shifting is a discourse tactic where the person making a claim attempts to transfer the obligation of…
Censorship through noise (flooding) suppresses unwanted messages not by removing them but by drowning them in a massi…
Chauffeur know-how describes the phenomenon where someone can fluently repeat expert-sounding language and explanatio…
The circumstantial ad hominem occurs when an argument is dismissed not by attacking the person's character directly (…
The complex forecast illusion occurs when a prediction gains perceived credibility simply because it is detailed, use…
Concern trolling is a disingenuous rhetorical tactic where someone pretends to be a supportive ally or sympathetic ob…
DARVO (Deny, Attack, Reverse Victim and Offender) is a three-stage discourse manipulation tactic used by perpetrators…
False balance (bothsidesism) is the journalistic and rhetorical practice of presenting two opposing viewpoints as equ…
False equivalence equates two things, situations, or positions that are superficially similar but differ in crucial a…
Faulty agency assignment occurs when responsibility for an outcome is attributed to the wrong actor, force, or factor…
The firehose of falsehood is a propaganda technique that involves flooding the information environment with a high vo…
A discourse tactic of overwhelming an opponent with a rapid series of arguments, questions, or claims, each requiring…
The 'it gets worse before it gets better' tactic is a discourse mechanism where a speaker preemptively frames negativ…
JAQing off (Just Asking Questions) is a discourse tactic where someone disguises assertions, insinuations, or conspir…
A Kafka trap is a rhetorical device where any attempt to deny an accusation is used as further evidence that the accu…
The motte-and-bailey tactic involves advancing a bold, controversial claim (the 'bailey') but retreating to a more de…
The discourse tactic of selecting the most extreme, foolish, or ridiculous members of an opposing group and presentin…
Poisoning the well is a preemptive rhetorical strategy where negative information (true, misleading, or false) about …
The discourse failure of interpreting an opponent's argument in the weakest or most uncharitable way possible when a …
A red herring is a deliberate introduction of an irrelevant topic or issue into a discussion in order to divert atten…
The 'show the other side' deficit occurs when an argument or presentation fails to acknowledge, address, or fairly re…
The discourse practice of constructing the strongest possible version of an opponent's argument before responding to …
A discourse tactic where a participant feigns confusion or misunderstanding to force an opponent into repeated explan…
A discourse tactic that dismisses criticism by claiming the critic has not studied the subject deeply enough to be qu…
A discourse tactic that focuses on the emotional tone or delivery of an argument rather than its content, effectively…
The tragedy of the commons describes a situation where individual actors, each rationally pursuing their own self-int…
A discourse tactic that responds to criticism by redirecting attention to the critic's own failings or to another par…
The weak man fallacy occurs when an arguer selects the weakest, least competent, or most extreme proponent of an oppo…